"Ancient History Of Athletics"

Athletics has an ancient history. For the ancient man or woman to survive, they had to hunt for food. In doing so they had to throw stones or spears at animals in order to kill them for food. The very same throwing techniques were used to defend them against the enemy or predators.

The ancient man or woman often had to travel vast distances to hunt for food, and when they had the target in sight, they had to move fast to capture it, or to avoid it from escaping. In their endeavours, they had to negotiate hostile terrain and often had to jump far or high to be able to reach the targeted objective or to move to a safer environment.

The need to determine who is the fastest, the fittest or the strongest already started with the ancient man. Originally, only men were allowed to engage in activities, now labelled as athletics. The evolution of athletics did not all happen at the same time or at the same place.

Until fairly recently, it was dangerous for both participant and spectator during athletics events. Incidents of officials, athletes and spectators being beheaded by a hammer throw implement, penetrated by a javelin or falling to their death from an elevated platform were common occurrences in ancient athletics.

According to cave drawings from the Stone Age, animals were originally used as hurdles. Later hurdles were used, but the construction of the hurdles was robust and contact was avoided due to the injuries risk involved. When hurdling was introduced to the Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 the construction and design of the hurdles became less dangerous for athletes to make contact with.

Steeple Chase running regularly took place during the middle ages. Soldiers were required to run on the walls of the castle from one steeple (the spire of the castle tower) to another steeple to remain fit during times that the castle was besieged by the enemy. It often developed into a competition with death defying results.

In ancient time, in Long Jumping, the athlete was required to hold weights while jumping in a dug up and levelled area from a standing position. The athlete was allowed to jump from an elevated take-off area.

The practice of jumping with weights from an elevated area often lead to serious injuries and broken limbs. The athlete was also allowed to take more than one step during the landing process. This form of landing where more than one stride could be taken after landing was one of the reasons why Triple Jumping as a sport started.

In Shot Put during ancient times it was required of the athlete to throw a stone with a weight of 7.26 kg as far as possible from a square approximately 2m (7 foot) wide drawn on the ground. These rules were still practiced during the 1st Olympic Games in 1896.

In Discus Throw the athlete was required to throw from a standing position, a small wagon wheel or a discus shaped object from a square area of approximately 2.5m. The Hammer Throw evolved from Discus Throw and came as a result of athletes trying to throw a wheel from a standing position further by attaching a rope to the wheel. First recordings of Hammer Throw were made in the early 1800’s when athletes tried to swing a wagon wheel attached to a rope as far as possible. In the early 1600’s a form of “Sledge” Throw competition existed which required swinging and then throwing a sledge attached to a rope. The sling shot used by David to slaw Goliath also refers to a form of Hammer Throw. The most common Discus Throw technique was to stand sideways and swing the “Hammer” over a straight line in the same manner that a pendulum swings in a “Grandpa” clock.

A spear was used in ancient times as a weapon to kill the enemy or to hunt for food. Originally it was required from an athlete to throw a spear from horseback or a raised platform to a target. The thrower was not allowed to fall to the ground after delivering the Javelin. In some competitions the Javelin Thrower was required to throw a Javelin from both arms simultaneously and the winner was the athlete with the best average distance. The Javelins often landed among the spectators. Later Javelin Throw evolved to a run-up with the javelin landing in a prescribed landing area. The modern day Javelin Throw technique evolved in the mid 1950’s.

"Polar Bears"

In some areas of their Arctic home, polar bears are in decline. Their drop in population can be traced to another decline: that  of sea ice, reduced by global warming. Sea ice is the polar bears’ primary habitat and they rely on it for survival. Unless major  actions to reduce global warming are taken, two-thirds of the world’s polar bears are likely to be gone by 2050.

What are the problems polar bears face?

Climate change:

The burning of fossil fuels, the release of sequestered hydrocarbons into the Earth’s atmosphere, and  extensive agriculture and deforestation are causing climate change, which in turn is causing the biggest threat faced by polar bears: the rapid loss of Arctic sea ice. Since 1978, scientists have recorded a decline in late summer Arctic sea ice area of 7.7 percent per decade, as well as a decline in the perennial sea ice area of up to 9.8 percent per decade. In some places, a thinning of the Arctic sea ice of as great as 32 percent or more from the 1960s and 1970s to the 1990s has been shown.

More important, ice is melting earlier in the year and reforming later as a result of climate change. Thus, the time available for bears to hunt on the ice and store up fat reserves for the summer and autumn is decreasing.

As the periods polar bears must go without food become longer, their overall body condition declines. Habitat loss due to global warming in the Arctic is by far the most important factor potentially affecting the future survival of polar bears.

Oil and gas:

Petroleum industry activities in the Arctic are another human disturbance factor stressing bears in their habitat.  There are already large oil and gas operations in the Arctic, and the industry is set to expand in the years ahead - especially  offshore. Onshore Arctic oil installations are currently found in Russia, Canada and Alaska.

Disturbances due to seismic exploration, construction, transportation and the operation of facilities, as well as contamination from oil spill cleanup operations, may negatively impact polar bears. Furthermore, exploration for oil and gas continues to pollute the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, which is the leading cause of global warming and the loss of the polar bear’s sea ice habitat. 

Toxic pollution:

 As top predators, polar bears are exposed to high levels of pollutants through the food chain. Seals, their preferred prey, are often contaminated with the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that are prevalent in Arctic waters. When a polar bear eats a seal contaminated with POPs, the chemicals become concentrated in the bear’s fat and are stored in its vital organs. Bears with high levels of some POPs have low levels of vitamin A, thyroid hormones, and some antibodies, which are important for biological functions such as growth, reproduction, behavior and the ability to fight off disease.

Hunting:

The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears allows the hunting of polar bears by indigenous people using traditional methods and exercising traditional rights.  WWF respects the rights of indigenous peoples to harvest marine mammals in a responsible manner. Most hunting is done in a sustainable manner, but overhunting is an additional stress on some polar bear populations. Currently, the hunting of polar bears by nonnative sport hunters is legal in Canada and Greenland.

Historically, hunting was the biggest challenge faced by polar bears. But according to the U.S. Geological Survey, hunting has become less of a stressor. It does remain an important factor as the sea ice retreats, because retreating ice will make onceremote habitats more accessible and more bears will occupy terrestrial habitats. As harsh conditions become milder in certain areas, people will have new access to remote lands and the potential for human-bear interactions will likely increase.  

What can I do to help protect polar bears?

ü Reduce CO2 (and other greenhouse gas) emissions in your everyday life.

ü Support and vote for political decisions that aim to achieve considerable and swift greenhouse gas reductions.

ü Demand from the Arctic states that human activities there are managed in ways that take into account biodiversity conservation.

Polar bear facts

Population status:

There are 20,000 to 25,000 polar bears. They are classified on IUCN’s Red List as vulnerable and they are on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.

Where they live:

Greenland, Svalbard (Norway), northern Canada, Alaska (United States) and Russia.

Biology:

Polar bear fur appears white but actually is transparent. This fur combines with their black skin, which absorbs sunlight, to make them superbly adapted to the harsh Arctic environment, where temperatures rarely exceed 10°C (50°F) in summer and hover around -30°C (-22°F) in winter. Their lifespan is 20 to 30 years. Adult males measure 200 to 250 cm (6.5 to 8 ft) in length and weigh 400 to 600 kg (880 to1,300 lbs). Adult females measure 170 to 200 cm (5.75 to 6.5 ft) and weigh 150 to 300 kg (330 to 660 lbs). Standing on its hind legs, a polar bear is as tall as a small elephant.

Hunting habits:

In fall, winter and spring, polar bears dwell near the edge of the pack ice, where they are most likely to find food. In the summertime, as the southern edge of the Arctic ice cap melts, some bears follow the retreating ice north to stay close to prey, while others spend their summers on land, living off body fat stored from hunting. Bears that spend their summers on land always head back to hunting off the sea ice when it reforms close to the coast in the fall.

Reproduction:

The mating season for polar bears is March through May; however, pregnancy is delayed so that gestation will last into the winter months. Around November or December, the female digs a maternity den in a snowdrift. Soon she gives birth to cubs - often twins - that take refuge in her thick fur. New mothers cease to feed in winter months and instead live off their stored fat. Their milk, high in fat content, enables the cubs to keep warm and grow rapidly before leaving the den in March or April.

"History Of Gymnastics"

Although gymnastics has existed for more than 2,000 years, its development as a competitive sport began only slightly over 100 years ago. During the 1800’s exhibitions were held by some clubs including the Sokols and Turnvereins. Gymnastic competition was probably born as a result of these exhibitions.

As an activity, gymnastics was introduced to the United States and its school system in the 1830’s. Gymnastics flourished in athletic clubs and such ethnic organizations as the Turnvereins and Sokols although it was slow to catch on in the schools. It was in the Turnvereins and Sokols that competitive gymnastics started in the United States after the Civil War.

However, the sport never really became popular in the world until the advent in 1896 of the modern Olympics.

The AAU assumed control of most amateur sports, including gymnastics in 1888. Prior to this time gymnastic competitions were disorganized and “championships” were held by various clubs and organizations. Before the AAU assumed the responsibility as the central controlling agency, it was impossible to arrive at any standards of competition regarding such ideas as amateurism, events, and especially rules. So, in 1888, when the AAU held its first championship gymnastic meet in the New York Athletic Club, rules of an unknown origin were used and resulted in considerable confusion.

However, by 1890, the North American Tumer-Bund joined with the AAU, and together they carefully established the rules for competition which were used for the next 30 years.

When the United States became interested in intemational competition in 1920, it became apparent that in order to compete successfully, rule changes would be necessary for the United States so that all-around gymnasts rather than specialists would be developed. Adjustments were made in 1921 and then again in 1953 so that the rules would cover the traditional United States events and international events as well.

Perhaps the men most responsible for AACJ leadership and rule changes during these critical years were Roy E. Moore and George J. Gulack. Moore was chairman of the National AAU Gymnastic Committee from 1920 until his death in 1957. It was through this position that he enthusiastically directed the post-World War II revival of gymnastics, although his greatest accomplishments were probably promoting American participation in Olympic competition starting in 1920 and gaining AAU membership in the FIG in 1923. After Gulack retired from competition in 1932, the two men worked together for the next 30 years. They, at some time, served on most of the national and international gymnastic committees.

Surely these two men played a significant part in the AAU as it maintained the dominate role in United States gymnastics for many years. Thus since 1888, the AACJ has provided the leadership, rules and organization for national championships and has represented the United States internationally through its membership in the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) and the FIG. Before World War II there was little doubt in gymnastics that the AAU was rightly the sponsor of our national meets and correctly our representative to the FIG. Most of the gymnasts and most of the programs were AAU sponsored, promoted, or supported through their own or participating YMCA, Turnverein, Sokol or club organizations. This situation was, however, to gradually but drastically change.

As early as 1870, the colleges were having gymnastic exhibitions, both individually and in groups. After the AAU developed a set of rules for competition, the colleges had new incentive for demonstrating their gymnastic skills. There is some discussion as to when the first college gymnastic meet took place, because a meet at that time was very much like a demonstration or exhibition, but with the addition of judges. Most authorities agree that the first meet was either at the University of Chicago on March 5, 1898, or New York University on March 22 1899. Yet the growth of college gymnastics was very slow and sporadic until after World War II. There have been many explanations for this lack of growth, but most agree that the move away from a formalistic type of gymnastics and a trend toward games in the early part of the twentieth century delayed the development of gymnastic competition. Games, such as basketball and volleyball, were to push gymnastics out of the gyms.

Despite the slow growth of college gymnastics, gymnastic leagues did develop across the country in the early twenties. The major leagues were as follows: the Eastern Intercollegiate League; the Western Conference (Big Ten) in the Midwest; and the Pacific Coast Intercollegiate Athletic Conference in the West. In 1928, the NCAA set about developing a standard set of collegiate gymnastic rules, but because each of these conferences had their own set of rules, the NCAA Rules Committee had great difficulty in getting conferences to accept national rules. In 1931 the rules were finally agreed upon, but it was not until 1938 that the first NCAA national gymnastic meet was held. In 1934, a national meet was scheduled in Chicago, but was cancelled because there were not enough colleges who could afford to attend. The 1938 championship meet was won by Chicago University while the University of Illinois won the next four. Until World War lI the national NCAA meet attracted little attention with never more than eight schools attending. Then during World War II most colleges dropped gymnastics and other “minor” sports for the “duration.”

"Horse-Back Riding Safety Tips"

General safety tips

ü Ensure that the skill of the rider is matched to the horse’s temperament.

ü Become familiar with horses and their behavior and safe horse-handling practices.

ü Regularly inspect riding equipment and replace anything worn or damaged.

ü Ensure the horse’s tack fits well and is suited for the type of riding being done.

ü Do not drink alcohol or use drugs while riding or working around horses.

ü Avoid loose-fitting clothing that could get caught in riding equipment and cause dragging or trapped limbs.

ü Ensure that horse trainers /instructors are trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and basic first aid.

Head, neck and spine injuries

Head, neck and spine injuries are often the most severe horseback-riding related injuries, and head injuries are the most likely to result in death. The likelihood of death from a head injury is greatly increased if the rider is not wearing a helmet. In one study, riders not wearing a helmet were four times more likely to die when injured than those who wore helmets.

Helmets worn while riding and working around horses should be certified by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the Safety Equipment Institute (SEI). The helmet should fit snugly on the head, with firmly secured but comfortable chin straps. Any helmet that has undergone an impact should be discarded and replaced. Many helmet manufacturers also recommend that helmets be replaced every three to five years due to wear and tear and possible compacting of cushioning materials.

International studies of equestrian-related injuries emphasize that the use of appropriate helmets significantly reduces the number and severity of head injuries.

Modern helmets are affordable and much more comfortable than older versions thanks to better ventilation, lightweight materials and their availability in multiple sizes. Helmets are even available with a Western hat style!

"History Of Archery"

Archery is one of the oldest arts of ancient times which is still practiced today. From its first development until the 1500s, the bow was man's constant companion and has been the most widely used of all weapons in recorded history. The bow allowed the prehistoric human to become the most efficient hunter on earth, providing him safety, food and raw materials such as bone, sinew and hide. From that time on, archery has played an important role in many of the world's civilizations.

Starting with the reign of William the Conqueror, the bow was England's principal weapon of national defense for several centuries. Around the year 1200, Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes conquered much of the known world employing short, powerful bows. For Native Americans, archery was the means of subsistence and existence during the days of English and later American colonization.

Finally, after the bow's replacement by firearms as a weapon of war, archery became a favored sport, thus securing its continuous practice throughout history.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, archery's importance as a cultural advance ranks with the development of speed and the art of making fire. The use of the bow appears in folklore from over 3000 years ago, although its invention probably predates that era.

The development of archery followed a course of key innovations by many historical cultures. About 3500 BC., Egyptians were using bows as tall as themselves. Their arrowheads, originally constructed of flint, were later made of bronze.

Almost 2000 years later, the Assyrians developed the shorter recurve bow, which provided more power and easier handling. One central Asian clan, the Parthians, became famous for their ability to shoot backwards from a galloping horse, making the Parthian shot a meaningful phrase in our language.

At about 1200 BCE, the Hittites developed the skill of shooting from moving chariots, and around 500 AD, the Romans, formerly second-rate archers, began to draw the arrow to the face rather than the chest, giving the shot more accuracy.

Crossbows and the later developed longbow were the primary defense against massed cavalry. In the battles of Crecy and Agincourt in France, in the 14th century, English longbows overcame frightful odds against mounted, fully armored knights to win the advantage. These longbows had draw weights of from 60 to 120 pounds, and were often used at ranges up to 250 yards. From 1330 to 1414, English kings banned all other sports because they diverted time from archery and a royal decree of 1363 required all Englishmen to practice archery on Sundays and holidays. The advent of gunpowder lead to a decline in popularity for archery as a tool of war, but it never completely died away, particularly among peasant poachers in the King's woods.

The National Archery Association of the United States had its origin as a result of just such a turn in our own country's history. After the Civil War, Confederate soldiers were not allowed to own firearms. Two brothers - J. Maurice and William H. Thompson - learned to hunt with the bow and arrow and became accomplished archers in Florida.

Maurice's seminal book, "The Witchery of Archery", along with his poetry, continues to charm people to archery to the current day. They were both founding members of the NAA in 1879 at Crawfordsville, Indiana.

Archery tournaments, as we know them today, can also be traced back to England. Competitions were held as part of community festivals as early as the 17th century. By about 1600, three kinds of shooting were practiced in England, and they still survive in some form. In butt shooting, the ancestor of Olympic target archery, bowmen aimed at targets mounted on earthen butts at ranges of 100 to 140 yards. In clout shooting, the target was a piece of canvas, about 18 inches across, with a wooden peg in its center. Arrows are shot high into the air to descend on the target, which lies on the ground rather than being upright. Roving, the predecessor of modern field archery, grew out of casual hunting with bow and arrow. Archers are presented with targets of various shapes and sizes, simulating small animals, and they shoot at unknown ranges over rough ground, not a prepared course.

Archery became an official event in the modern Olympic Games in 1900 and was also featured in 1904, 1908 and 1920. International rules had not yet been developed, though, and each host country used its own rules and format. Because of the resulting confusion, the sport was eliminated from The Federation Internationale de Tir a l'Arc (FITA), was founded in 1931 as the international governing body for the sport of archery. The organization implemented standardized, international rules for competition which allowed the first World Championship to be held that same year. In 1972, after enough countries had adopted FITA's rules, archery was re-admitted to the Olympic Games.

Since that time, technology has greatly advanced the equipment, and some competitive formats have become obsolete. Archery has become wedded to skiing in the sport of Ski-Archery, with running in Arcathalon, and the compound bow, invented in 1966 by Wilbur Allen of Missouri, has been accepted in FITA and may soon join the Olympic recurve bow in Olympic competition.

"Wild Edible Berries"

Among the common wild edible plants, berries are probably those that are tried first by people. The Pacific Northwest is fortunate to have many wild fruits available to gatherers. The following edible berries and small fruits are found in Western Washington:

Blackberry

 The trailing blackberry is our only native blackberry. It has weak, bluish stems and is often found in fairly deep woods. Its berries are not large or over-abundant, but are delicious. The Himalayan and Evergreen blackberries are the ones we commonly see by the roadsides. (And, all too often, they come up in our gardens from seed sown by passing birds.) The fruit is big, delicious and plentiful.

Cultivated blackberries, such as Marionberries and Loganberries, are crosses of various wild blackberries. The “improvements” are not that significant (other than the thornless types) in my opinion.

Blackcap

These delicious wild raspberries are the favorite of many wild food fanciers. Like a cultivated raspberry, the berry pulls away from the white “core” as you harvest. The most common is black when ripe, though there is one that matures red.

Blueberry

 These deciduous shrubs with bluish black berries in the late summer are more common in the mountains than the lowlands, but they are worth travelling to collect. Keep your eyes and ears open while harvesting; they are a favorite of bears.

Cranberry and Lingonberry

 These lowgrowing plants, usually found in bogs, have tiny, evergreen leaves. The juicy, red berries are small, but seem large for the plants. They are not very sweet, but useful as a snack or in various cooked dishes. Currant Currant fruit is edible.

Elderberry

Clusters of tiny, seedy, bitter, bright red elderberry fruit must be cooked before eating, since raw berries may cause nausea. Blue elderberries are less common, but much more useful. Huckleberry There are two common lowland huckleberries. The evergreen huckleberry has small, leathery, toothed leaves and dark purple-black berries. They are most common near salt water. They don’t ripen until fall and then hold well on the plant, so they are a nice winter treat.

Red huckleberries are found further inland and often grow out of rotten logs or stumps. Because of their flavor and abundance, they were very popular with native peoples. They are slightly sour fresh, but make excellent piesand “raisins”.

Indian plum

One of the first plants to flower, clusters of chartreuse flowers appear before the leaves in spring. The fruit looks like a tiny plum as it turns from pink to dark blue. It’s slightly bitter until very ripe, by which time the birds may have already eaten them. Since they are mostly pit anyhow, it’s no great loss.

Kinnikinnick

 Commonly planted as an evergreen groundcover in dry, sunny sites. The flavorless red berries are edible, but mealy and full of rather large seeds.

Oregon grape

This shrub can be tall (6+ feet) or low (under 2 feet). Its compound, holly-like leaves, bright yellow flowers and long-lasting blue berries make it a popular landscape plant. The clustered fruit is tasty and easy to harvest, but tart and filled with relatively large seeds. With plenty of sugar, the juice makes a good lemonade-type drink or jelly.

Rose Hips

These are the fruit of the wild rose found in open meadows. The rinds of the hips can be eaten raw. Cooked hips are better if the seeds are removed before using in teas, jams or jellies. Rose hips contain high levels of Vitamin C.

Salal

Extremely common, leathery leafed plant of the Puget Sound area. The sweet berries taste and can be used like blueberries.

Salmonberry

These berries can be golden or reddish orange. There is equal variety in the flavor of the berries with some being much better than others are. They are most valuable because they are earlier than most other berries (June). They are very delicate, so pick them into a shallow container or the weight of the lop layer will turn the lower ones to mush.

Serviceberry, Juneberry or Saskatoons

This tall deciduous shrub has pretty white flowers in the spring and sweet, blueberry-like fruit in August. If you don’t eat them, the birds will.

Strawberry

Needs no introduction. There are several kinds, but all are excellent though small. Thimbleberry Their big, fuzzy maple-like leaves make this caneberry distinctive, as does the fact that it is blessedly thornlessness. Again some of these red raspberry-like plants are more flavorful thanothers. Sometimes they are quite enjoyable and other times the somewhat hairy fruit seems bland. I often ignore them, if there are other berries to be had.

Make sure of the identity of the plant before you start sampling. Be sure not to pick berries if the plants look like they might have been sprayed with an herbicide. And, of course, get the property owner’s permission before harvesting on private property.

Sample widely before harvesting in earnest, since flavor often varies. In general, plants in the sun, but where they get plenty of water, usually will be the biggest and sweetest.

"Homemade Cheese"

Cheesemaking techniques vary depending upon the intended final use or consumption of the cheese.  Cheese can have widely varying characteristics.

Italian mozzarella-type cheese, used in pasta dishes, must have good melting quality and mild flavor. Hard cheese such as Romano and Parmesan must be dry with distinct flavor. Mexican cheese, often used in fried foods, must be stable at high temperatures. The variety among cheeses has arisen from differences in milk quality, diversity among native microflora (microorganisms naturally occurring in a given region) and differences in handling during processing. In North America cheese is usually made from the milk of cows (Bos taurus) or goats (Capra aegagrus). In India cheese is often made of milk from water buffalo (Bubalus arnee). Yak (Bos grunniens) cheese is made in the interior of Asia.

Cow’s milk consists of 88% water with 3.7% fat, 3.4% protein, 4.8% sugar (lactose), and 0.7% minerals and vitamins (USDA, 2005). The process of making cheese involves forming a curd from milk solids such as fats, protein and minerals that are separated and concentrated (Hill, 2006). The discharged liquid, whey, contains most of the lactose, water, simple proteins, minerals and vitamins (Hill, 2006). About 10 pounds (1.25 gallons) of milk are required to make one pound of cheese.

Making cheese is a dynamic process, affected by time, temperature and the bacterial culture (lactic acid bacteria) and coagulating enzyme (rennet) that are used to concentrate and separate the casein (milk protein) and fat from the whey. Exceptions to this include cheeses such as Queso Fresco or Queso Blanco (traditionally eaten in Latin American countries) and Paneer (traditionally eaten in India), which are made without bacterial cultures or rennet. These cheeses are made by curdling hot milk by adding an acid such as vinegar or fruit juice. This type of fresh cheese is simple to make and has higher yield because all the whey proteins normally lost are included in the cheese.

The enzyme rennet causes casein to form chains and to develop a mesh-like network or gel, trapping water and fat. This semisolid gel is the curd. When the gel is firm enough, it is cut into small pieces and, after cooking, the whey is removed. The whey may be partially drained from the curd and the curd washed with water to increase its moisture content. The temperature during cooking and handling of the curd affects the texture of the curd and the type of final product. When the curd has reached the desired moisture and acidity, salt can be added. Salting may be achieved through brine, as with Gouda; surface salt, as with Feta; or dry salt, as with Cheddar. After salting, the curd may be partially drained and again washed with water to increase the moisture content. When the curds have reached the desired moisture and acidity (pH), the whey is separated from the curd.

The cheese curd formed is a result of bacterial action on lactose converted to lactic acid. The acid acts as a preservative, removes water from the cheese curd, and develops cheese texture (Hill, 2006). Initially the enzymes from native microflora produce the flavor components, which change during aging.

Commercial cultures have been developed to produce a particular cheese type. Yogurt and buttermilk contain live bacteria that can be used as a culture to make cheese.

Once the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to stick together, forming a mat. The mat is transferred to a hoop or mold lined with cheesecloth, which contributes to the final shape. The mold can be pressed to form a dense cheese (Cheddar) or can be left to settle under its own weight to have an open texture (Feta).

Soft cheese can be made at home without specialized equipment. Because soft cheese contains over 45% water, it is highly perishable and has a refrigerated life of only five to seven days. 

"The Maple Leaf Cruise"

“THE MAPLE LEAF CRUISE” (since 1904)

This is a review of Maple Leaf Cruise. Hope you enjoy it! And please leave comments below.

Ship Type: Schooner

Sails:

1. Main sail

2. Fore sail (gaff rig)

3. Stay sail

4. Jib

5. Fisherman

Length overall: 92 feet

Length on deck: 75 feet

Beam: 15 feet

Draught: 11.5 feet

Home port: Victoria, B.C.

Materials: Yellow cedar, Douglas fir, mahogany

Year built: 1904

Waters travelled each year:

Entire B.C. coast and southeast Alaska

How she makes her living: Adult eco-cruises (natural & cultural history); Youth sail training

Maple Leaf is B.C.’s oldest tall ship. She was built in Vancouver in 1904, the same year that Jenny Butchart opened her now-famous Butchart Gardens, and the first bricks were laid in Victoria’s Empress Hotel.

The Coast’s Most Expensive Ship When Maple Leaf was  launched, she was the envy of the boating world. She was the first ship north of San Francisco with electric lights. Her “new-fangled” external lead keel and fast hull were designed to win races.

Her design was so new, shipwrights weren’t sure of the size of timbers needed to sport a 30,000-lb. keel. So Maple Leaf was “over-built”: her hull made stronger than necessary. That would be key to her survival over the next century. 

Journey by sail in one of the world’s great wild places.If you are looking for a holiday away from crowds, consider a cruise on Maple Leaf.Relax, rejuvenate and learn as  you sail on a schooner through wildliferich areas.

On Maple Leaf, the proximity you feel to the coast’s natural and cultural wonders is incomparable with any other form of ocean travel.A professional crew, including naturalist and chef, ensure your days are comfortable and fulfilling.

Maple Leaf’s journey’s are top-ranked by travel writers. They are a Frommer’s “Best Travel Experience” and in Explore magazine’s “Top 5 Guided Trips” in Canada.

"SUGAR MAPLE"

Sugar maple was designated as Canada’s national tree in 1965. The maple leaf adorns the Canadian Flag. Aboriginal people in North America used the tree’s sap to make maple sugar. The practice was later adopted by European settlers. Today, as the primary source of sap for the maple syrup industry, sugar maple is an important crop tree for farmers and woodlot owners.

Sugar maple is an important commercial hardwood. It’s valued for hardness, dense grain and light colour. Sugar maple is used for furniture, flooring, farm tools, veneer, general construction, cutting blocks and other products. This species is also valued as a fuelwood for home heating because it produces a large amount of heat and burns slowly.

Sugar maple is important to wildlife. Moose, deer, squirrels, rabbits, hares, porcupines, mice and many species of birds feed on maple bark, buds, twigs and fruit. Heavy feeding by deer can kill, deform and stunt the growth of maple trees. By reducing the number of maple trees in the forest, deer can change the species composition of the forest. Mice and voles also kill maple seedlings and saplings by girdling trees (girdling removes a strip of bark from around a tree).

HOW TO IDENTIFY SUGAR MAPLE

TREE SHAPE

Mature sugar maples are large, with dense rounded crowns. In forests, sugar maple trunks are usually straight and free of branches for two-thirds or more of their height. In open fields, trunks are shorter, with a few large branches supporting a wide crown.

Sugar maples can live to be 400-years-old, reaching heights of 20 to 35 metres and diameters of 50 to 90 centimetres.

LEAVES

Sugar maple leaves are eight to 13 centimetres wide. They’re a deep yellowish-green on the upper side, and paler and hairless on the under side. In autumn, they turn a brilliant red, orange or yellow.

The leaves are arranged in pairs along the twig, with each leaf opposite another. They’re flat, with three or five long pointed lobes. The leaf can be easily distinguished from other maple species by two “u-shaped” notches that separate the side lobes from the centre lobe.

TWIGS

Sugar maple twigs are reddish-brown, hairless and glossy. The sharp pointed buds lie opposite each other along the twig.

BUDS

The reddish-brown buds have several pairs of faintly hairy scales.

BARK

The bark is light to dark grey and divided into long irregular strips that often curl to one side.

FRUIT

The fruit is a winged seed about 2.5 to 3 centimetres long. It matures in autumn.

WHERE SUGAR MAPLE GROWS BEST

Sugar maple is the predominant species in the Deciduous Forest Region and a common species in the Great LakesSt. Lawrence and Acadian forest regions. In southern Ontario, sugar maple is an important component of many woodlots.

SOIL

Sugar maples grow on a variety of soils, but grow best on deep, moist, and well drained soils with medium or fine textures.

SHADE OR SUNLIGHT?

Sugar maples are tolerant of shade. They survive in the shade of other species for years until an opening in the canopy occurs and they are released to grow in partial or full sunlight.

STAND COMPOSITION

Sugar maples grow in pure and mixed stands, and evenaged and uneven-aged stands. They are commonly found with ironwood, beech, basswood, white ash, black cherry, yellow birch, white pine and red oak. As forests grow older, sugar maple becomes a predominant species.

STAND LOCATION

Sugar maples grow well on flat sites and slopes. Southern slopes, which are generally warmer, are preferred for maple sap production.

"CLOUDS"

HIGH-LEVEL CLOUDS

High-level clouds are formed in altitudes above 20,000 feet. Because the temperatures are so cold at this elevation, these clouds are formed from ice crystals.

Cirrus clouds are thin and wispy clouds that are blown by high winds.  They usually mean the day will have fair or pleasant weather, and follow the direction that the air moves at the altitude they are found at. 

Cirrostratus clouds are like very thin sheets of clouds that cover large parts of the sky. 

Cirrocumulus clouds look like small round puffs in the sky. Sometimes they are called mackerel clouds because they look similar to fish scales.

MID-LEVEL CLOUDS

Mid-level clouds are found in altitudes between 6,500 to 20,000 feet.  They are formed mainly of water droplets, but can also be made up of ice crystals when the temperature is cold enough.

Altocumulus clouds are composed of water droplets and are gray and puffy. These clouds are usually seen on warm and humid summer mornings and are usually a sign that thunderstorms will follow later in the day.

Altostratus clouds are made up of ice crystals and water droplets.  They can cover the entire sky and form before rain storms.

LOW-LEVEL CLOUDS

Low-level clouds are found below 6,500 feet and although they are mostly made up of water droplets. They can also be composed of ice particles and snow in very cold temperatures. 

Stratus clouds are among the low-lying clouds.  They are gray clouds that cover the entire sky and can be the result of very thick fog lifting in the morning.

Nimbostratus clouds are dark gray clouds that produce falling rain.

VERTICAL CLOUDS

Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are both known as vertical clouds. 

Cumulus clouds are also called fair weather clouds and look like floating cotton. They have very flat bases and are not very tall clouds. When cumulus clouds are first formed from droplets, they have very distinct edges, but as they move through the sky, air causes the edges to appear more ragged and broken apart. 

Cumulonimbus clouds can take up several miles across the sky and can reach elevations of 39,000 feet or higher because of very strong updrafts in the atmosphere.

Low level cumulonimbus clouds are made up of water droplets, but at higher elevations, they consist of ice crystals.  Cumulonimbus clouds are they type of clouds that bring lightning, thunder, violent tornadoes and other intense weather situations.