"The History Of Chocolate"

Chocolate Through the Years

The story of chocolate, as far back as we know it, begins with the discovery of America. Until 1492, the Old World knew nothing at all about the delicious and stimulating flavor that was to become the favorite of millions.

The Court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella got its first look at the principal ingredient of chocolate when Columbus returned in triumph from America and laid before the Spanish throne a treasure trove of many strange and wonderful things. Among these were a few dark brown beans that looked like almonds and seemed most unpromising. They were cocoa beans, today’s source of all our chocolate and cocoa.

The King and Queen never dreamed how important cocoa beans could be, and it remained for Hernando Cortez, the great Spanish explorer, to grasp the commercial possibilities of the New World offerings.

Food of the Gods

During his conquest of Mexico, Cortez found the Aztec Indians using cocoa beans in the preparation of the royal drink of the realm, chocolatl, meaning warm liquid. In 1519, Emperor Montezuma, who reportedly drank 50 or more portions daily, served chocolatl to his Spanish guests in great golden goblets, treating it like a food for the gods.

For all its regal importance, however, Montezuma’s chocolatl was very bitter, and the Spaniards did not find it to their taste. To make the concoction more agreeable to Europeans, Cortez and his countrymen conceived of the idea of sweetening it with cane sugar.

While they took chocolatl back to Spain, the idea found favor and the drink underwent several more changes with newly discovered spices, such as cinnamon and vanilla. Ultimately, someone decided the drink would taste better if served hot.

The new drink won friends, especially among the Spanish aristocracy. Spain wisely proceeded to plant cocoa in its overseas colonies, which gave birth to a very profitable business. Remarkably enough, the Spanish succeeded in keeping the art of the cocoa industry a secret from the rest of Europe for nearly a hundred years.

Chocolate Spreads to Europe

Spanish monks, who had been consigned to process the cocoa beans, finally let the secret out. It did not take long before chocolate was acclaimed throughout Europe as a delicious, health-giving food. For a while it reigned as the drink at the fashionable Court of France. Chocolate drinking spread across the Channel to Great Britain, and in 1657 the first of many famous English Chocolate Houses appeared.

The hand methods of manufacture used by small shops gave way in time to the mass production of chocolate. The transition was hastened by the advent of a perfected steam engine which mechanized the cocoa grinding process. By 1730, chocolate had dropped in price from three dollars or more per pound to within the financial reach of all.

The invention of the cocoa press in 1828 reduced the prices even further and helped to improve the quality of the beverage by squeezing out part of the cocoa butter, the fat that occurs naturally in cocoa beans. From then on, drinking chocolate had more of the smooth consistency and the pleasing flavor it has today.

The 19th Century marked two more revolutionary developments in the history of chocolate. In 1847, an English company introduced solid “eating chocolate” through the development of fondant chocolate, a smooth and velvety variety that has almost completely replaced the old coarse-grained chocolate which formerly dominated the world market. The second development occurred in 1876 in Vevey, Switzerland, when Daniel Peter devised a way of adding milk to the chocolate, creating the product we enjoy today known as milk chocolate.

Chocolate Comes To America

In the United States of America, the production of chocolate proceeded at a faste pace than anywhere else in the world. It was in the prerevolutionary New England–1765, to be exact–that the first chocolate factory was established. Chocolate has gained so much importance since that time, that any interruption in its supply would be keenly felt.

During World War II, the U.S. government recognized chocolate’s role in the nourishment and group spirit of the Allied Armed Forces, so much so that it allocated valuable shipping space for the importation of cocoa beans. Many soldiers were thankful for the pocket chocolate bars which gave them the strength to carry on until more food rations could be obtained.

Today, the U.S. Army D-rations include three 4-ounce chocolate bars. Chocolate has even been taken into space as part of the diet of U.S. astronauts.

Growing the Cocoa Bean

Cocoa beans are the product of the cacao tree. The origin of the cacao tree is in dispute. Some say it originated in the Amazon basin of Brazil, others place it in the Orinoco Valley of Venezuela, while still others contend that it is native to Central America.

Wherever its first home, we know the cacao tree is strictly a tropical plant thriving only in hot, rainy climates. Thus, its cultivation is confined to the lands not more than 20 degrees north or south of the equator.

The Need For Shelter

The cacao tree is very delicate and sensitive. It needs protection from the wind and requires a fair amount of shade under most conditions. This is true especially in its first two to four years of growth.

A newly planted cacao seedling is often sheltered by a different type of tree. It is normal to plant food crops for shade, such as banana, plantain, coconuts or cocoyams. Rubber trees and forest trees are also used for shade. Once established, however, cacao trees can grow in full sunlight, provided there are fertile soil conditions and intensive husbandry. Cacao plantations (trees under cultivation), and estates, usually in valleys or coastal plains, must have evenly distributed rainfall and rich, well-drained soil.

As a general rule, cacao trees get their start in a nursery bed where seeds from high-yielding trees are planted in fiber baskets or plastic bags. The seedlings grow so fast that in a few months they are ready for transplanting, container and all.

The First Fruit

With pruning and careful cultivation, the trees of most strains will begin bearing fruit in the fifth year. With extreme care, some strains can be induced to yield good crops in the third and fourth years.

Everything about the tree is just as colorful as its history. An evergreen, the cacao tree has large glossy leaves that are red when young and green when mature.

Overlays of clinging moss and colorful lichens are often found on the bark of the trunk, and in some areas beautiful small orchids grow on its branches. The tree sprouts thousands of tiny waxy pink or white five-petaled blossoms that cluster together on the trunk and older branches. But, only 3 to 10 percent will go on to mature into full fruit.

The fruit, which will eventually be converted into the world’s chocolate and cocoa, has green or sometimes maroon-colored pods on the trunk of the tree and its main branches. Shaped somewhat like an elongated melon tapered at both ends, these pods often ripen into a golden color or sometimes take on a scarlet hue with multicolored flecks.

At its maturity, the cultivated tree measures from 15 to 25 feet tall, though the tree in its wild state may reach 60 feet or more. The potential age of a tree is open to speculation. There are individual trees known to be over 200 years of age, but no one has determined the real life span of the species. However, in 25 years the economic usefulness of a tree may be considered at an end, and it often becomes desirable to replant with younger trees.

"The Origin Of Birthday Cake"

In the 1800 London edition of Christian Salzmann’s book Gymnastics for Youth (translated from German) we find the following brief passage “before his sixth birthday cake is put in the oven.”

How and when the tradition of a birthday cake spread to the rest of Europe is unclear. There are very few references to birthday cakes prior to 1850. In a widely circulated article published in 1843, Mrs. Abell writes that the exiled Napoleon Bonaparte was given on his birthday from an English friend a “cake ornamented with a large eagle”. In a fictional children’s story published in 1834 we find the following dialog, “ `On the morning of the 17th of May,’ (continues his papa,) `the day on which he completed his ninth year, he said to his mother, `Mamma, I should like to have a birthday cake.” (Anon 1834, 176)

Prior to 1850 in United States, the observance of birthdays was not a universal tradition as it is today. The newspaper Richmond Whig observed in 1865 “Mothers who have a dozen little ones to care [for] are apt to neglect birthdays; they come too often.” The Ladies Repository in 1871 noted that “Americans make too little account of anniversary occasions” and “rush through life with such velocity as to find little time to lay garlands on the milestones [of life].”

The Ladies Repository continues by pointing out that some Americans in adhering to the values of their Puritan ancestors have taken the early Protestant prohibition against religious festivals too far by rejecting family centered events like birthdays. It is clear there were both practical as well cultural and ideological reasons for not celebrating birthdays. It is likely that economic reasons also played a role especially for large working class families.

Interestingly, both the Richmond Whig and Ladies Repository articles made a passionate argument for the universal adoption of birthdays for children. The writers of these two articles were part of a larger social trend which emphasized children’s birthdays. This trend began in the 1850’s. (The evidence for an emerging trend can be seen in dramatic increase in the number of references in the period literature to birthdays.) Many of these celebrations include a birthday cake. The Americans were well aware of the German birthday festivals and detailed accounts were published in various publications (cites). It is likely they adopted the concept of a special cake for birthdays from the Germans. Although there was a strong emphasis on children’s birthdays, adult’s birthdays were also being celebrated as well.

The Americans were slow to adopt the German tradition of lighting a candle for each year of a person’s life. The earliest references in American newspapers and journals to the birthday candle tradition do not appear until the early 1870’s. The Ladies Repository article (1871) is one of the earliest American publications to promote the German candle tradition in America. It states “The huge, decorated, birthday cake is placed in the center-table, and around it are ranged lighted candles, graduate in length and number by the age of the child. As the first slender taper, signaling babehood, goes out, the assembled family and guests united in singing one verse of an appropriate hymn, and thus they go in order to the last, each year expiring in music. What could make a sweeter, holier impression on the heart of a child?” The singing of verses from hymns never gained momentum but the singing of a song after the candles have been lit has become a part of the tradition.

The tradition of the birthday boy or girl blowing out the candles (rather than letting them

burn down) can be traced back to the 1880’s. In Switzerland during the year 1881, folklore researchers collected the following “superstition” from the Swiss middle class, “A birthday-cake must have lighted candles arranged around it, one candle for each year of life. Before the cake is eaten the person whose birthday it is should blow out the candles one after another.” [anon 1883, 380-381) There is no mention of making a wish. A different version of this tradition emerged in America during the early 1880’s. In New York state, the Watertown Daily News reported that around the birthday cake, “were placed 10 candles, 9 of which were kept burning, and one representing the year begun, and not passed, [remained] unlit. The youthful host selected nine of his friends to serve as well-wishes, each to make one wish, and to blow out one candle …” (6-2-1882) The nine well-wishes spoke their good wishes out loud before blowing out the candle. It should be noted that the birthday boy did not blow out any of the candles. In Michigan, the practice of adding an extra “growing candle” was also observed. Unlike New York, the extra candle was lit. Like the New Yorkers, certain guests were asked to make a wish for the birthday person and blow out a candle. (Michigan Farmer 11-18-1884) This tradition of having the guest blow out the candles continued into the first decade of the 20th century. The book Correct Social Usage (1909) written in New York, recommend this practice but instructs that guests to keep their wishes a secret.

One of the earliest references in the United States to the birthday girl or boy blowing out all the candles (rather than the guests) is found in the March 1909 edition of St. Nicholas, a children’s magazine. Three candles were stuck into the frosting of the cake and lit. Then, “Bab cut a piece of cake for Ned, and Ted, and for Nursie, and then she blew out the candles and so her beautiful part was over.” At some point in the 20th century, it became a tradition that your birthday wish only came true if the birthday boy or girl successfully blew out all the candles in a single breath.

In America, children’s birthday parties had become socially fashionable by the 1880’s. The Michigan Farmer (1884) writes “In this city birthday parties are very much in the fashion. Where the little ones attend the kindergarten, a birthday serves as a semi-holiday.” During this decade, it was common to see descriptions of children’s birthday parties appearing in the social columns of the local newspaper. Some of the longer accounts even include a list of guests in attendance. (ex. Watertown Daily News 6-2-1882; New Haven Register 11-10-1888 and 10-24-1888)

Birthday’s had been being celebrated with Birthday Cakes for about fifty years when Mrs. Owens published her cook book in Chicago, Illinois in 1899. Yet she felt it her duty to explain how a birthday celebration in particular the part with the cake should be handled.

She explained a large cake was to be baked in the “dripping pan and heavily Birthday Party from St. Nicholas (1909) frosted.” When the frosting was partially dried “mark it off in small squares and put half an English walnut meat on each.” The next step was to cut a narrow “paste-board” [cardboard] frame to go around the edge. Small holes were cut in the paste-board to hold the candles. To dress up the frame, fancy colored paper was added.

Then she explained how it was to be served. “The lights in the room should be put out and the cake brought in with candles lit and placed before the person whose natal day is being celebrated and he should cut and distribute it.”

"The Neurobiology of Love"

Brief outline of the neurochemistry of love

The areas that are involved are, in the cortex, the medial insula, anterior cingulate, and hippocampus and, in the subcortex, parts of the striatum and probably also the nucleus accumbens, which together constitute core regions of the reward system. The passion of love creates feelings of exhilaration and euphoria, of a happiness that is often unbearable and certainly indescribable. And the areas that are activated in response to romantic feelings are largely co-extensive with those brain regions that contain high concentrations of a neuro-modulator that is associated with reward, desire, addiction and euphoric states, namely dopamine. Like two other modulators that are linked to romantic love, oxytocin and vasopressin (see below), dopamine is released by the hypothalamus, a structure located deep in the brain and functioning as a link between the nervous and endocrine systems. These same regions become active when exogenous opioid drugs such as cocaine, which themselves induce states of euphoria, are ingested. Release of dopamine puts one in a ”feel good’’ state, and dopamine seems to be intimately linked not only to the formation of relationships but also to sex, which consequently comes to be regarded as a rewarding and “feel-good’’ exercise. An increase in dopamine is coupled to a decrease in another neuro-modulator, serotonin (5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine), which is linked to appetite and mood.

Studies have shown a depletion of serotonin in early stages of romantic love to levels that are common in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorders. Love, after all, is a kind of obsession and in its early stages commonly immobilizes thought and channels it in the direction of a single individual. The early stages of romantic love seem to correlate as well with another substance, nerve growth factor, which has been found to be elevated in those who have recently fallen in love compared to those who are not in love or who have stable, long-lasting, relationships. Moreover, the concentration of nerve growth factor appears to correlate significantly with the intensity of romantic feelings.

Oxytocin and another chemically linked neuro-modulator, vasopressin, seem to be particularly linked to attachment and bonding. Both are produced by the hypothalamus and released and stored in the pituitary gland, to be discharged into the blood, especially during orgasm in both sexes and during child-birth and breast-feeding in females. In males, vasopressin has also been linked to social behaviour, in particular to aggression towards other males. The concentration of both neuro-modulators increases during the phase of intense romantic attachment and pairing. The receptors for both are distributed in many parts of the brain stem which are activated during both romantic and maternal love.

It is noteworthy that sexual arousal activates regions adjacent to – and in the case of the hypothalamus overlapping with – the areas activated by romantic love, in the anterior cingulate cortex, and in the other subcortical regions mentioned above. Especially interesting in this regard is the activation of the hypothalamus with both romantic feelings and sexual arousal, but not with maternal love. Its activation may thus constitute the erotic component present in romantic, but not in maternal attachment. Moreover, sexual arousal (and orgasms) de-activate a region in the frontal cortex that over-laps the de-activated region observed in romantic love. This is perhaps not surprising, given that humans often take ‘‘leave of their senses’’ during sexual arousal, perhaps even inducing them to conduct which they might later, in more sober mood, regret. In fact, this intimacy in terms of geographic location between brain areas engaged during romantic love on the one hand and sexual arousal on the other is of more than passing interest. Judged by the world literature of love, romantic love has at its basis a concept – that of unity, a state in which, at the height of passion, the desire of lovers is to be united to one another and to dissolve all distance between them. Sexual union is as close as humans can get to achieving that unity. It is perhaps not surprising to find, therefore, that the areas engaged during these two separate but highly linked states are juxtaposed. Indeed the desire for unity through sexual union may be a consequence of it.

Cortical de-activations and the madness of love

It may seem surprising that the face that launched a thousand ships did so through this limited set of areas. But the story of Paris and Helen of Troy should in itself be enough to tell us that these neurobiological results, viewed on their own, can lead to deceptive interpretations. For romantic love is all-engaging, transforming people’s lives and inducing them to both heroic and evil deeds. It is not surprising to find therefore that this core of brain areas that become engaged during romantic love has rich connections with other sites in the brain, both cortical and sub-cortical. Among these are connec-tions with the frontal, parietal and middle temporal cortex as well as a large nucleus located at the apex of the temporal lobe, known as the amygdala. Increase in activity in the romantic core of areas is mirrored by a decrease in activity, or inactivation, of these cortical zones. The amygdala is known to be engaged during fearful situations and its de-activation, when subjects view pictures of their partners as well as during human male ejaculation, implies a lessening of fear. As well, the all-engaging passion of romantic love is mirrored by a suspension of judgment or a relaxation of judgmental criteria by which we assess other people, a function of the frontal cortex.

This cortical zone, along with the parietal cortex and parts of the temporal lobe, has also been commonly found to be involved in negative emotions. Its inactivation in romantic as well as maternal states – when faced with the loved one – should not therefore be surprising because, when deeply in love, we suspend those critical judgments that we otherwise use to assess people. The prefrontal cortex, the parieto-temporal junction and the temporal poles constitute a network of areas invariably active with ‘mentalizing’ or ‘theory of mind’, that is, the ability to determine other people’s emotions and intentions. It is noteworthy, from the point of view of “unity-in-love’’, that one feature of mentalizing in terms of the ‘theory of mind’ is to distinguish between self and others, with the potential of ascribing different sets of beliefs and desires to others and to oneself. To obtain an imagined ‘‘unity-in-love’’, so that the self and the other are merged, this process of mentalizing, and thus distinguishing between self and the other, must be rendered inactive. But critical judgment of others is also often suspended with the trust that develops between individuals and certainly with the deep bonding that develops between a mother and her child. Here, then, is a neural basis not only for saying that love is blind, but for the concept of ”unity-in-love’’. It is not surprising that we are often surprised by the choice of partner that someone makes, asking futilely whether they have taken leave of their senses. In fact, they have. Love is often irrational because rational judgments are suspended or no longer applied with the same rigour. In Plato’s Phaedrus, Socrates comments: ‘‘the irrational desire that leads us toward the enjoyment of beauty and overpowers the judgment that directs us toward what is right, and that is victorious in leading us toward physical beauty when it is powerfully strengthened by the desires related to it, takes its name from this very strength and is called love’’. Nor are there moral strictures, for judgement in moral matters is suspended as well.

After all, moral considerations play a secondary role, if they play one at all, with Anna Karenina, or Phedre, or Emma Bovary or Don Giovanni. And morality, too, has been associated with activity of the frontal cortex.

Euphoria and suspension of judgment can lead to states that others might interpret as madness. It is this madness that poets and artists have celebrated, Plato considering it in Phaedrus as a productive, desirable state because this kind of ‘‘madness comes from God, whereas sober sense is merely human’’. But of course if it comes from God, it transcends the world of rationality and is beyond the grasp of the intellect or logos. Perhaps the neurological explanations, of a de-activation of those parts of the brain that are involved in the making of judgments, makes the frequent apparent irrationality of love more comprehensible. As Nietszche once wrote, ‘‘There is always some madness in love. But there is always some reason in madness’’, the reason to be sought in the pattern of neurobiological activation and deactivation that romantic love entails, which serves the higher purpose of uniting for biological purposes even unlikely pairs, and thus enhancing variability. If ‘‘the heart has its reasons of which reason knows nothing’’, it is quite literally, because reason is suspended. When Blaise Pascal uttered these words he could not have known that reason is suspended because the frontal lobes are (temporarily at least) also suspended. In fact, we can draw a neurobiological lesson from this selective suspension of judgment. For, if those in love suspend judgment about their lovers, they do not necessarily as well suspended judgment about other things. They could, for example, be perfectly able to judge the quality of a book or of a scientific work. They could as well be perfectly able to have a theory of mind regarding persons other than the one they love. The suspension of judgment is selective, and argues for a very specific set of connections and brain operations when it comes to love.

Neural correlates of maternal love

Equally interesting is that this pattern of areas activated by romantic yearnings shares parts of the brain that also become active when mothers view pictures of their own children, as opposed to other children. Maternal and romantic love share a common and crucial evolutionary purpose, that of maintaining and promoting the species. They also share a functional purpose, in that both require that individuals stay together for a period of their lives. Both are thus calculated by nature to ensure the formation of firm bonds between individuals, by making of them rewarding experiences. It is not surprising to find that both sentiments share common brain areas. But, given the neurological axiom stated above, that if you can tell the difference it is because different brain areas are involved, it is also not surprising to find that the pattern of brain activation that correlates with maternal love is not identical to the one that correlates with romantic love. An interesting difference lies in the strong activation of parts of the brain that are specific for faces in maternal love. This may be accounted for by the importance of reading children’s facial expressions, to ensure their well being, and therefore the constant attention that a mother pays to the face of her child.

Another interesting difference is that the hypothalamus, which is associated to sexual arousal, is only involved in romantic love. The commonly activated regions between the two types of love are located in the striatum, part of the reward system of the human brain. It is also true that in maternal love, no less than in romantic love, judgment is somewhat suspended, in that mothers are a good deal more indulgent with their children and perhaps less likely to fault them. Once again, we find that there is a pattern of cortical de-activation produced by maternal love which is remarkably similar to the one produced by romantic love and in particular the frontal cortex that is involved in the formation of judgments.

Brain concepts of the lover

It is a truism to say that most people develop a preference for the kind of person they want to love, and hence a concept of their potential lover(s); their likelihood of falling in love with that kind of person is that much greater. These preferences come in many different forms and are almost certainly conditioned by, among other things, parental influences, cultural predelictions and the kind of person that they may have met. A recent study has in fact charted the ‘‘average’’ man with whom women are most likely to fall in love. He is smooth-skinned and remote from the kind of macho type that many believe are attractive to women. The characteristics associated with the most desirable (virtual) man are not only linked to sexual attractiveness but also ones that suggest a caring attitude. Clearly, this average man, chosen by female students at St Andrews University in Scotland, is the result of a concept and may apply only to the environment in which the study was conducted. The importance of the study lies in showing us that we do indeed form a concept of the kind of person we would like to love. In the literature of love, perhaps nowhere is this more emphatically stated than in the work of Dante, whose love for Beatrice is one of the most celebrated love affairs in the Western literature. Yet Dante stated quite clearly in his first work, La Vita Nuova (The New Life), that what he really wanted to write about was not about Beatrice (who was dead by then) but about ‘‘lo gloriosa donna de la mia mente’’ (the glorious lady of my mind).

In matters of love and attachment, we can go a little further and sketch in outline form the chemistry that underlies the concept of the loved one that the brain forms. Unfortunately, we cannot do so for man yet but for much simpler animals, the prairie voles, rats, mice, marmosets and monkeys. But it would be hard to believe that similar, though almost certainly infinitely more complex mechanisms, do not operate in humans.

Perhaps the first step in this enquiry is to look at the chemistry of the human brain areas that are activated during romantic love, and in particular oxytocin, vasopressin and dopamine. Most brain regions, including subcortical regions, that have been determined to contain receptors for oxytocin and vasopressin are activated by both romantic and maternal love. To better understand the role of these chemicals in bonding, we have to rely on recent experiments on prairie voles.

Oxytocin and vasopressin have many effects but most relevant from our point of view is that, not only are they involved in bonding between individuals but have also been found to be effective in learning and memory, but only in a social context. Both are released when prairie voles have sex. They are intimately linked to dopamine, which is associated with reward. And although prairie voles are a long way from man, the release of these hormones in other animals, including man, under similar conditions makes it likely that their human counter-parts are also strongly involved in activities associated with romantic and maternal love, which is not to say that these are their only functions. The story of voles is actually of great biological interest, especially when one contrasts two species, the prairie and the montane vole, the former having monogamous relationships (with the occasional fling thrown in) and the latter indulging in promiscuous sex without long-term attachment. If the release of these two hormones is blocked in prairie voles, they too become promiscuous. If, however, prairie voles are injected with these hormones but prevented from having sex, they will continue to be faithful to their partners, that is to have a monogamous though chaste relationship. One might have imagined that injection of these hormones into the promiscuous montane voles would make of them virtuous, monogamous, animals too. But that is not how things work out and injection of these hormones into montane voles does not render them monogamous. This may seem at first paradoxical, but there is a simple biological way of accounting for it and it is of substantial interest in the context of concept formation.

Once secreted by the pituitary, these neuro-hormones can only act if there are receptors for them. In the prairie vole there is an abundance of receptors for vasopressin and oxytocin in the reward centres of the brain. These centres are not clearly defined as yet but include many structures that have been found to be active in reward conditions. Many are located in the sub-cortex. Receptors for oxytocin and vasopressin are missing or not as abundant in the reward centres of the montane voles. Hence injecting montane voles with a surplus of these two neuro-hormones does not make them monogamous, since there are not sufficient receptors for them in the reward centres. It is as if these two hormones, strongly implicated from other evidence with bonding, are the ones that keep voles faithful and monogamous and as if the absence of receptors for them makes of their relatives promiscuous animals. There is no evidence that these two neuro-hormones act in the same way in humans; it would be surprising if they did, given the infinitely more complicated structure of the human brain. But it would not be surprising if we find in the vole a vestigial system to account for the sexual and romantic nature of humans. Mankind is often, but very mistakenly, considered to be monogamous. The evidence from divorce rates, adultery and other more or less clandestine and casual encounters, as well as the flourishing trade in prostitution and pornography, suggests otherwise, which is not to say that many among the human race do not maintain monogamous, or serially monogamous, relationships. It would be highly interesting to learn whether monogamous humans have a higher concentration of oxytocin and vasopressin, as well as a richer concentration of receptors for them in the reward centres of the human brain compared to their more promiscuous counterparts. One might even find that humans can be divided into three or more categories –ranging from the extremely promiscuous to the strictly monogamous, and that this distribution reflects the distribution of receptors for vasopressin and oxytocin, which is known to vary in species as far apart as voles and humans.

Oxytocin and vasopressin seem to play a crucial role in forming a concept of the kind of partner that an organism wants to be with, at least in the world of vole ideas. They appear to do so by building a strong profile of the mating partner through odour and, once they do so, the odour-derived concept seems to be very stable. The odour comes to be associated with a pleasurable and rewarding encounter with a particular partner. The same works in the visual domain, as has been shown in sheep – once oxytocin is released in the presence of a baby, the sheep will visually recognise the baby and behave in a motherly way toward it until it is grown up. If the gene for either of these two neuro-modulators is disabled before birth by genetic engineering in a mouse, the mouse will no longer be able to form a profile – or a concept – of the mice that it meets. It becomes totally amnesic in this regard and hence promiscuous. It is not outrageous to suggest that this neurochemically mediated experience has all the hallmarks of concept formation, though concept formation at a very elementary, chemical, level. The concept formed is that of an individual; it is based on an encounter and sexual experience, is acquired postnatally and is associated with a pleasurable, rewarding, experience with a partner of a particular odour.

Love and beauty

A beautiful person, as is commonly known, is perhaps the surest way of evoking the sentiment of love. Throughout history, from the days of Plato onwards, the path to love has been described as being through beauty. Dante falls in love with Beatrice because he finds her beautiful, and longs to see that which is hidden in her physique. The Lord Krishna ‘‘steals the mind’’ with his beauty and Majnun, in his love for Leila, is obsessed by her beauty, even if she does not seem beautiful to others. ‘‘To see her beauty’’, he declares, ‘‘you must borrow my eyes’’. Beauty and love are themselves never far from erotic desire, since the most intense love is strongly coupled to sexual desire and the two faculties share common areas in the brain, as described above. It is not surprising to find therefore that an attractive face and sexual arousal, as well as the experience of visual beauty, engage a part of the brain known as the orbito-frontal cortex. Nor is this the only common brain region engaged by the two aspects of romantic love. The face of a loved person engages two cortical regions, the insula and the anterior cingulate, as do sexually arousing visual stimuli.

Attractive faces, as well as the faces of a loved person, de-activate not only the frontal cortex but also the amygdala (mentioned above), which is also de-activated when viewing the face of a loved person. This suggests that not only is judgmentless severe when looking at a loved or desired person, but that the curiosity and apprehension with which we often survey faces for discomfiting signs are suspended. Moreover, the orbito-frontal cortex is connected with the amygdala and with other cortical areas and sub-cortical areas – the anterior cingulate cortex, the putamen and the caudate – that are engaged during the experience of romantic love. Hence the intimate experiential connection between love and beauty is probably nothing more than an expression of the intimate anatomical connection between the centres that are involved in these two experiences. So intimate must the anatomical link between them be that the experiences themselves become difficult to disentangle.

"History of the Violin"

The violin is a descendant from the Viol family of instruments. This includes any stringed instrument that is fretted and/or bowed. It predecessors include the medieval fiddle, rebec, and lira da braccio. We can assume by paintings from that era, that the three string violin was in existence by at least 1520. By 1550, the top E string had been added and the Viola and Cello had emerged as part of the family of bowed string instruments still in use today.

It is thought by many that the violin probably went through its greatest transformation in Italy from 1520 through 1650. Famous violin makers such as the Amati family were pivotal in establishing the basic proportions of the violin, viola, and cello. This family’s contributions to the art of violin making were evident not only in the improvement of the instrument itself, but also in the apprenticeships of subsequent gifted makers including Andrea Guarneri, Francesco Rugeri, and Antonio Stradivari.

Stradivari, recognized as the greatest violin maker in history, went on to finalize and refine the violin’s form and symmetry. Makers including Stradivari, however, continued to experiment through the 19th century with archings, overall length, the angle of the neck, and bridge height.

As violin repertoire became more demanding, the instrument evolved to meet the requirements of the soloist and larger concert hall. The changing styles in music played off of the advancement of the instrument and visa versa.

In the 19th century, the modern violin became established. The modern bow had been invented by Francois Tourte (1747-1835). Its weight, length, and balance allowed the player to produce power and brilliance in the higher ranges. It was Louis Spohr’s invention of the chin rest around 1820 that made it possible for the player to hold the violin comfortably and play in the higher positions. Spohr’s chin rest also resulted in the significant advancement of playing technique and allowed the violin repertoire to reach its virtuoso level. The advent of the shoulder rest (no known date) was also an important contribution to the ease of playing.

Players in Bach’s day held the violin by placing a chamois on their shoulder so the violin would not slip, but stay in place by gentle pressure from the chin and shoulder. The instrument was angled towards the floor constricting movement of the arm underneath the neck and thereby prohibiting playing in the upper positions. The Bach E Major Violin Concerto was composed at a time (ca. 1720) when the violin had no chin or shoulder rest, had a shorter fingerboard, and was strung entirely of gut strings. Players also used little or no vibrato. All this combined with the bow in use (shorter and lighter than the present day Tourte bow), made for a soft, muddy, rough sound. Today’s performances sound louder in volume, but softer in texture. The sound has a brilliance and clarity to it that would not have been possible in Bach’s day.

Despite the fact that violins in Bach’s time were not “modern” by today’s standards, his solo string instrument compositions are some of the most challenging repertoire for any serious student of the violin, viola, or cello.

"Bloody Mary: Mary of Portsmouth"

Everyone has heard of the myth of Bloody Mary but where did it come from?

There are many rumors when it comes to the origins of Bloody Mary. Some people say it originated in Europe in the Middle Ages but this is simply false. There are three stories of the origin of Bloody Mary that is considered to be widely accepted among folklore researchers today. The first takes place in 1666 in colonial Portsmouth, New Hampshire. According to the legend, an orphan child, known simply as Mary, would wonder the woods and often taunt the people of Portsmouth whenever she was in town.

Mary of Portsmouth, as she is often referred to as, would carry a hand mirror that had a crack running down the middle. When the townsfolk told her that her time in town had been spent, she would reply holding up the hand mirror, “Gaze into the mirror and your fictional horrors will turn to truth!”

Strange things started happening in the town of Portsmouth. Items began to be misplaced, arguments among friends, and marriages that lasted years began to crumble; all lead to the thought that Mary of Portsmouth was a participant of witchcraft.

An “angry mob”, so to say, gathered and went to find Mary to trial her of charges of witchcraft. As the mob approached the spot where Mary usually camped, they found her body full of blood. Her face had scratches that went deep into her flesh. Her eyes were ripped out of their sockets. Lying next to her was the cracked hand mirror with blood only on the glass. The body was burnt and thrown into the river and the mirror was tossed into the ground and coved up with dirt.

"The History Of Opera"

Opera has existed for more than four hundred years. Opera incorporates all varieties of other art forms; dance, visual arts, music, costumes, sets and make-up. The word "opera" meaning "a work" is essentially a story told to music. Operatic stories come from many sources; history, mythology, fairy tales, folk stories, literature and drama. What all of these stories have in common is that something about their musical and/or dramatic qualities inspired a composer to set it down in music.

Stories and story telling seem to tap into a basic human need and all cultures have story telling traditions. They teach us about life and death, love and hate, good and bad; in short, the human condition. Music is also found in every culture and when used in combination with a good story can clarify, define, elaborate on or even contradict the original story. It is this combination of music and story that makes opera and all forms of musical theater so powerful.

Opera has survived wars, collapsing monarchies, depressions, and plagues, to expand beyond all geographic and cultural boundaries to remain one of the most exciting and creative of all the performing arts. Since opera does not exist within a "bubble", included in this operatic history are also world events that helped to shape opera into the form we are familiar with today.

One could argue that opera actually had its beginnings during the height of ancient Greece when a chorus would be included as part of a dramatic performance, usually at the beginning or end of an act. However, most historians place the birth of opera at the end of the 16th century. This was the great flush of the Renaissance, when Shakespeare was at the height of his powers, Spain had launched another unsuccessful armada against England and most of Europe was either at war with each other, or bidding to colonize the Americas. The Roman Catholic Church had lost much of its hold on Europe, in particular Germany with Martin Luther and his Protestants, and the relative freedom of expression was in full swing. It was into this time of upheaval and great creativity that opera was born. A group called the Florentine Camarata, headed by Vincenzo Galilei (father of the famous astronomer), published a Dialogue about Ancient and Modern Music in 1581. In this book, Galilei stated that multiple vocal texts, melodies and rhythms could never clearly express the text and instead created a chaos of contradictory impressions. Therefore, the correct way to set words was to use a solo melody, "monody", which would enhance the natural speech inflections. Galilei did set some verses from Dante's Inferno for tenor solo with accompaniment, but the music was not preserved. The first example of a true opera DAFNE was written in 1597 by Peri, a singer who did not adhere to Galilei's theory, but did continue writing in the monodic style. However the best known operatic composer at this time was Claudio Monteverdi (1597-1643). Most of his operas were performed in Venice where opera mania became as great as Beatlemania in our own time. By the middle of the 17th century, opera was being heard all over Italy and had spread to France and Germany. Even two of the popes wrote operas and at its height, Venice had over 30 opera houses and premiered over 1,700 operas. Thus ends the Renaissance and begins the Baroque period.

The explosion of art and music throughout Europe was staggering with various monarchies and noblemen competing to see who could build the most opera houses and work with the most important artists of the day. The Baroque period (approximately 1600 - 1725) saw the paintings of Rembrandt van Rijn, writings of Descartes, Moliere and John Locke, the establishment of Boston by Puritans (1630), the building of the Taj Mahal (begun in 1653), the reign of Peter the Great in Russia, the Salem witchcraft trials (1692) and the music of Johann Sebastien Bach, Georg Friedrich Handel and Antonio Vivaldi. The Baroque Opera flourished throughout much of Europe with the Italian school prevailing in most of the opera houses and royal courts. This time period is often called the "Age of Enlightenment" and the operas which were written and performed during this period were clear, simple, rational, of universal appeal, and were used as purely entertainment. Handel was the most famous opera composer of his day and his operas were performed throughout Europe.

The 18th century brought opera to its baroque height with an incredible number of works being written and performed which then led to the classical period of Franz Joseph Hadyn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig von Beethoven. The Classical period (approximately 1725-1827) was a time marked by the toppling of monarchies and the exploration of our world. The French Revolution (1789-1794) reshaped its government and sunk its population even further into poverty, the American Colonies declared independence from England, George Washington became President, Napoleon began (and ended) his conquest of Europe, and Lewis and Clark began their expedition across the United States.

Opera continued to flourish throughout the Classical era, though it went through some changes of its own. Italian composers began to bring opera into harmony with changing ideals of music and drama, making the entire design more natural, more flexible in structure, deeper in content and more varied in other musical resources. The orchestra became more important for both its sake and for adding harmonic depth to accompaniments. The consummation of this new style of opera was in the work of Christoph Gluck. He began writing operas in the Italian style, but was deeply influenced by the reform in the 1750s. He collaborated with the poet Calzabigi to produce ORFEO ED EURIDICE (1762) and ALCESTE (1767). Other composers during this time period tried their hand at writing operas, Haydn wrote more than 75 for the Esterhaus family, and Mozart supported himself with several popular operas; THE MARRIAGE OF FIGARO, DON GIOVANNI and THE MAGIC FLUTE.

During the 1820s, a new "class" who highly valued individual expression and freedom arose out of the ashes of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire - the middle class. Thus a new type of opera was needed to appeal to this relatively uncultured audience who thronged the theatres in search of excitement and entertainment. New operas that underscored the public's "new" interests were required and composers scrambled to find topics. Many found inspiration in the literature of the time and instead of using Greek mythology as a basis for the opera, composers were using Shakespeare, Goethe and Victor Hugo. This became Grand Opera which used all artistic elements such as ballets, choruses and crowd scenes, to appeal to its new audience.

Opera comique, which was less pretentious than grand opera, flourished along side the grand opera. Opera comique required fewer singers and players, and was written in a much simpler musical idiom; its plots presented straightforward comedy or semiserious drama instead of the huge historical pageantry of grand opera. Opera bouffe emphasized smart, witty and satirical elements of comic opera and appeared in Paris in the 1860s. Other composers took note and began developing operettas in other countries; Gilbert & Sullivan in England composing THE MIKADO, THE PIRATES OF PENZANCE and HMS PINAFORE, Johann Strauss, Jr. in Vienna composing DIE FLEDERMAUS, and eventually Victor Herbert in the United States composing BABES IN TOYLAND and NAUGHTY MARIETTA. Another type of opera began to emerge called "lyric opera" which combined earlier opera comique with the current style of the grand opera, though on a much smaller scale. The landmark of lyric opera was CARMEN. Composed by Georges Bizet in 1875, CARMEN followed the traditional path of late 19th century Romantic opera; exotic locations, spare in texture and beautifully orchestrated.

There has been some “controversy” over the exact end of the Classical period and the beginning of the Romantic period. Most points agree that Beethoven was a pivotal figure in this transition in that his compositional early style was definitely rooted in the Classical tradition but his later works were trending towards a Romantic period style. For these reasons, this paper has listed the end of the Classical and beginning of the Romantic periods as 1827, the year that Beethoven died.

The Romantic period (approximately 1827-1900) touched off a second explosion of creativity throughout Europe, Russia and the United States. In the late 19th century art community, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Auguste Rodin and Renoir were the rage with Impressionism. In literary circles, the populations of Europe and the United States were reading Emerson, Thoreau, Melville, Whitman, Twain, Stevenson and many more. While in the musical community, composers such as Brahms, Berlioz, Tchaikovsky and Bruckner were changing the symphonic form and Wagner, Verdi, Rossini and Puccini were changing the opera.

Perhaps this explosion was due to the fact that throughout most of Europe, Russia and the United States, the last 40 years of the 19th century were relatively quiet. Aside from the Franco-Prussian war, most countries were enjoying a respite from conflict and many used the time to find ways of bettering mankind. Bell invented the telephone (1876), Edison invented the phonograph (1877) and the incandescent electric light (1879), Koch discovers the tuberculosis germ (1882) and Pasteur begins inoculating against rabies (1884). America gets the Statue of Liberty (1886), Wilhelm Roentgen discovers x-rays (1894), Queen Victoria is the longest reigning monarch in England's history (1837-1901) and Russia crowns its last tsar, Nicholas II (1894).

Some of the best known and loved operas were created during this time period. Italy had its own explosion of native composers such as Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti all of whom had a penchant for both the dramatic and comedic operas. Gioacchino Rossini's THE BARBER OF SEVILLE is perhaps the best example of Italian comic opera of the earlier 19th century with witty dialogue, unforgettable characters and beautifully crafted music. However, the most famous of all the Italian opera composers during the Romantic period was Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). With the exception of a few songs and a string quartet, all of Verdi's works were written for the stage. Verdi became so popular throughout Italy, that his name became a patriotic symbol and rallying cry "Viva Verdi!" Verdi viewed opera as human drama to be conveyed through the use of simple, direct, vocal solo melody. With the exception of one, all Verdi's operas deal with serious subject matter from Shakespeare's OTHELLO to Victor Hugo's RIGOLETTO. Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and early Verdi all composed in the BEL CANTO style which was characterized by long, fluid, melodic lines throughout the opera.

This marriage between music and literature was one of the distinguishing marks of the 19th century opera and German composers in particular used this to their full advantage. The culmination of German opera came in the form of Richard Wagner who not only created a new genre of operatic theater, but whose influence was so profound, it is still being felt today. Wagner felt that the function of music was to serve the ends of dramatic expression, therefore his operatic scores vividly outlined what was happening on stage. The Ring cycle, consisting of four operas, is Wagner's masterpiece which uses Norse mythology as its story base. To keep consistency between all four operas, Wagner used the leitmotif. The leitmotif is a musical theme or motive associated with a particular person, thing, or idea in the drama. This idea is used today in movie scores. In the Star Wars series, written by John Williams, each main character has a theme, as does the idea of "the force" and "the empire". These themes are woven throughout the picture as characters and ideas appear, thus giving the score some musical cohesion.

The heir to Wagner was another German composer, Richard Strauss. Though he was influenced by Wagner, Strauss had even more lush orchestrations and often used dissonance or would completely abandon tonality to emphasize a particular scene in his operas. His most famous operatic works include SALOMÉ (1905), ELEKTRA (1909), DER ROSENKAVALIER (1911), ARIADNE AUF NAXOS (1912), and DIE FRAU OHNE SCHATTAN (The Woman without a Shadow) (1919). Strauss’ symphonic works were equally stunning in their orchestration and scope, often including enormous numbers. His final tone poem, ALPINE SYMPHONY (EINE ALPENSINFONIE – 1915) included 123 players, a huge number for most orchestras who typically range between 60-75 players on average.

The end of the Romantic period brought about significant change to all musical forms. The idea of tonality was being stretched in France by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, while in Italy, Giacomo Puccini was writing dramatic operas which used a new style called "verismo" which means realism or naturalism. Puccini would choose a libretto that presented everyday people in familiar situations acting violently under the impulse of primitive emotions and wrote in a musical style that was appropriate to such a libretto.

The veristic opera was the grandfather of television and cinematic shock drama. It was typical of the post-Romantic period which used dissonance, hugeness and other musical devices to titillate the now jaded audience. LA BOHEME, TOSCA and MADAMA BUTTERFLY all had elements of the veristic opera.

The 20th century was a turbulent time, both in the world and within the musical community. Much of this century has been spent at war, population increases, fighting disease, and developing medical miracles. Musically, opera continues to grow and expand beyond the traditional boundaries of Europe and Russia to include other countries such as Australia, Canada and South America. The great names of early modern opera include Kurt Weill, Igor Stravinsky, Benjamin Britten, Paul Hindemith, and Anton Berg, to name just a few. There had never been a more exciting age operatically, when every taste wanted to be satisfied and curiosity for the unfamiliar was constantly increased.

Early 20th century opera was moving from the veristic style of Puccini to a broader experimentation with sound, polytonality (the musical use of more than one key simultaneously) and tone clusters (a musical chord comprising of at least three consecutive tones in a scale). Opera composers were now experimenting with polytonality, minimalism and the blurring of the lines between musical theatre and opera.

Noted composers of this period include Claude Debussy (Pelléas et Mélisande 1902), Arnold Schoenberg (Erwartung 1924), Alban Berg (Wozzeck 1925), George Gershwin (Porgy and Bess 1935), Benjamin Britten (Peter Grimes 1945), Carlisle Floyd (Susanna 195, Of Mice and Men 1970 and Cold Sassy Tree 2000), Igor Stravinsky (The Rake’s Progress 1951), Leonard Bernstein (Candide 1956), Philip Glass (Einstein on the Beach 1976 and Akhnaten 1984), Stephen Sondheim (Sweeney Todd 1979), John Adams (Nixon in China 1987, Death of Klinghoffer 1991), John Corigliano (The Ghosts of Versailles 1991), Mark Adamo (Little Women 1998), Tod Machover (Resurrection 1999) and William Bolcom (A View from the Bridge 1999).

The 21st century appears to be just as exciting for new operatic compositions as previous centuries. Everything and anything is possible in terms of subject matter, technology in staging, and compositional styles. Noted composers include Jake Heggie (Dead Man Walking 2000, The End of the Affair 2004 and Moby Dick 2010), John Adams (Doctor Atomic 2005), Mark Adamo (Lysistrata or The Nude Goddess 2005), Osvaldo Golijov (Ainadamar 2005), Tan Dun (The First Emperor 2006) and Paul Moravec (The Letter 2009).

The most important thing to remember about the history of opera, as with art and music, is that it is a reflection of world events. Early opera combined a humanistic outlook with a blending of mythology and “every day” realism. It became the most important of all art forms during the Baroque period when it was spectacular, but not intellectually or spiritually challenging. The classical age of opera was linked to enlightenment and philosophers like Rousseau and Voltaire. The Romantic revolution turned opera in a new direction, away from ancient history to works of Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller and Victor Hugo and it was often involved with national, revolutionary and political history. During the 20th century, opera became part of the era of Picasso, James Joyce, Freud and astonishing new worlds uncovered by science. And now into the 21st century, opera has no limits in terms of inspirations or aspirations.

Opera is truly a reflection of the human condition and whether the story is Shakespeare, Aesop or Hugo, it will continue to delight audiences of all ages and cultures, because on the most basic level, opera is telling the story of our lives.

"Regulate Your Weight With Almonds"

Scientists have noticed for many years that people who regularly eat almonds tend to weigh less than people who do not — even though they tend to eat more calories over the course of a day. Why? A new study published in the September 2007 issue of the British Journal of Nutrition sheds light on the mechanisms behind almonds’ ability to provide valuable nutrition and help lower (low density lipoprotein) LDL cholesterol levels without contributing to weight gain.

In the study, women were instructed to eat 344 calories worth of almonds (slightly more than 2 ounces) every day for one 10-week period, and then eat their customary diet for another ten weeks. The women did not gain weight during the period they consumed almonds. In addition, because of the high vitamin E and magnesium content in almonds, they met the daily dietary recommendations for those two nutrients that most Americans don’t consume in adequate amounts.

The researchers determined that the study participants felt satisfied, so they naturally compensated for most of the calories in almonds by replacing other foods in their normal daily diet with the almonds. They also noted a decrease in total carbohydrate intake, suggesting almonds may have replaced carbohydrate-rich foods.

Additionally, the researchers found that the fiber in almonds appears to block some of the fat they contain. So, in reality, almonds may provide fewer calories to the body than the amount the food label states. This raises broader questions about the availability of energy from foods, indicating that many may not actually deliver the amount listed on the nutrition facts label.

“Solid data has shown that eating one to three daily ounces of almonds can help lower (low density lipoprotein) LDL cholesterol levels,” said study co-author Rick Mattes, Ph.D., R.D. from Purdue University in West Lafayette, IN. “But many health care providers have been hesitant to recommend almonds as a daily snack because they’re a relatively high-calorie food and could contribute to weight gain.

This study challenges that assumption. The study indicates that the nutrition facts label may overstate the amount of energy available to the body from eating almonds.”

Study Details

A research team at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana conducted a study with 20 women, most of whom were overweight. One group was instructed to eat a normal diet for 10 weeks, but make one change — add 344 calories worth of almonds every day, slightly more than two ounces. The other group was instructed to eat their customary diet and no almonds. The groups then took a break for three weeks, and switched, so the second group ate almonds and the first group ate none.

Researchers measured body weight, metabolic rates, and physical activity at various points during the study. Compliance to almond consumption was assessed through diet records, as well as by measuring blood levels of vitamin E; this was because eating almonds, among the leading sources of vitamin E, has been shown to increase vitamin E levels in the blood.

The researchers found that when people were eating the 344 calories worth of almonds every day, they were in total, only taking in an extra 77 calories each day.

This is because the participants naturally compensated for the great majority of the calories in almonds, or about 74 percent, as they found the almonds satiating, or satisfying.

A further portion of these extra daily 77 calories was offset because the fiber structure of almonds blocked the fat in almonds from being fully absorbed. Also, although not statistically significant, the researchers noted an increase in energy expenditure through an increase in resting energy expenditure, or the number of calories used while participants were at rest. Based on the various measures in the study, the researchers concluded that the calories from almonds were compensated for by natural substitution of other foods, by some of the fat from the almonds passing through the body without being digested, and by an increase in resting energy expenditure.

Also notable, eating almonds led to significant increases in the intake of several important nutrients: polyunsaturated fat and monounsaturated fat, vitamin E, magnesium and copper. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 notes that Americans don’t meet the recommendations for vitamin E and magnesium. But in this study when participants ate almonds, on average, they met the daily recommendations for both nutrients.

Similar studies have shown that subjects can consume up to 570 calories worth (3½ ounces) of almonds per day without leading to weight gain. Another benefit of the almond’s nutrition is it may help reduce spikes in blood sugar when combined with high-carbohydrate meals.

So why don’t we try to add Almond into our diet menu?